Art and Craft Art and Craft Movement 19th Century

Design movement c. 1880–1920

The Arts and crafts motion was an international trend in the decorative and fine arts that developed primeval and most fully in the British Isles^[1] and subsequently spread beyond the British Empire and to the remainder of Europe and America.^[2]

Initiated in reaction against the perceived impoverishment of the decorative arts and the conditions in which they were produced,^[3] the movement flourished in Europe and North America between most 1880 and 1920. It is the root of the Modern Fashion, the British expression of what afterward came to be chosen the Art Nouveau movement, which information technology strongly influenced.^[4] In Japan it emerged in the 1920s equally the Mingei movement. It stood for traditional craftsmanship, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of ornament. Information technology advocated economic and social reform and was anti-industrial in its orientation.^{[3] [5]} Information technology had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced past Modernism in the 1930s,^[1] and its influence connected amidst craft makers, designers, and boondocks planners long afterwards.^[six]

The term was offset used by T. J. Cobden-Sanderson at a meeting of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Order in 1887,^[7] although the principles and mode on which it was based had been developing in England for at least 20 years. It was inspired by the ideas of builder Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, and designer William Morris.^[8] In Scotland it is associated with key figures such as Charles Rennie Mackintosh.^[9]

Origins and influences [edit]

Pattern reform [edit]

The Arts and Crafts movement emerged from the attempt to reform design and decoration in mid-19th century Britain. It was a reaction against a perceived decline in standards that the reformers associated with machinery and manufacturing plant production. Their critique was sharpened past the items that they saw in the Keen Exhibition of 1851, which they considered to be excessively ornate, artificial, and ignorant of the qualities of the materials used. Art historian Nikolaus Pevsner writes that the exhibits showed "ignorance of that basic need in creating patterns, the integrity of the surface", too as displaying "vulgarity in detail".^[10] Design reform began with Exhibition organizers Henry Cole (1808–1882), Owen Jones (1809–1874), Matthew Digby Wyatt (1820–1877), and Richard Redgrave (1804–1888),^[11] all of whom deprecated excessive ornament and impractical or badly made things.^[12] The organizers were "unanimous in their condemnation of the exhibits."^[13] Owen Jones, for example, complained that "the architect, the upholsterer, the paper-stainer, the weaver, the calico-printer, and the potter" produced "novelty without beauty, or beauty without intelligence."^[13] From these criticisms of manufactured goods emerged several publications which fix out what the writers considered to be the correct principles of design. Richard Redgrave's Supplementary Report on Pattern (1852) analysed the principles of design and ornamentation and pleaded for "more than logic in the awarding of ornamentation."^[12] Other works followed in a similar vein, such every bit Wyatt'due south Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century (1853), Gottfried Semper'southward Wissenschaft, Industrie und Kunst ("Science, Industry and Art") (1852), Ralph Wornum's Analysis of Ornament (1856), Redgrave'southward Manual of Design (1876), and Jones's Grammar of Ornament (1856).^[12] The Grammar of Ornamentation was especially influential, liberally distributed as a student prize and running into ix reprints by 1910.^[12]

Jones declared that ornament "must be secondary to the thing busy", that there must be "fitness in the ornament to the affair ornamented", and that wallpapers and carpets must not have any patterns "suggestive of annihilation but a level or apparently".^[14] A textile or wallpaper in the Not bad Exhibition might exist decorated with a natural motif fabricated to expect every bit existent as possible, whereas these writers advocated flat and simplified natural motifs. Redgrave insisted that "style" demanded sound construction before decoration, and a proper awareness of the quality of materials used. "Utility must have precedence over ornamentation."^[xv]

The Nature of Gothic past John Ruskin, printed by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press in 1892 in his Golden Blazon inspired by 15th century printer Nicolas Jenson. This chapter from The Stones of Venice (book) was a sort of manifesto for the Arts and Crafts movement.

Withal, the design reformers of the mid-19th century did not go every bit far as the designers of the Arts and Crafts movement. They were more concerned with ornamentation than structure, they had an incomplete understanding of methods of industry,^[15] and they did not criticise industrial methods as such. By contrast, the Craft movement was every bit much a movement of social reform as design reform, and its leading practitioners did not separate the two.

A. W. N. Pugin [edit]

Pugin's house "The Grange" in Ramsgate, 1843. Its simplified Gothic style, adapted to domestic building, helped shape the compages of the Craft move.

Some of the ideas of the motility were anticipated by A. W. Due north. Pugin (1812–1852), a leader in the Gothic revival in architecture. For example, he advocated truth to material, structure, and office, as did the Arts and Crafts artists.^[16] Pugin articulated the tendency of social critics to compare the faults of modern club with the Centre Ages,^[17] such as the sprawling growth of cities and the treatment of the poor – a trend that became routine with Ruskin, Morris, and the Arts and Crafts movement. His book Contrasts (1836) drew examples of bad modern buildings and town planning in contrast with good medieval examples, and his biographer Rosemary Hill notes that he "reached conclusions, about in passing, about the importance of craftsmanship and tradition in architecture that it would have the rest of the century and the combined efforts of Ruskin and Morris to work out in item." She describes the spare furnishings which he specified for a building in 1841, "rush chairs, oak tables", equally "the Arts and Crafts interior in embryo."^[17]

John Ruskin [edit]

The Craft philosophy was derived in large mensurate from John Ruskin's social criticism, deeply influenced by the work of Thomas Carlyle.^[18] Ruskin related the moral and social health of a nation to the qualities of its architecture and to the nature of its work. Ruskin considered the sort of mechanized product and division of labour that had been created in the industrial revolution to exist "servile labour", and he idea that a healthy and moral society required independent workers who designed the things that they fabricated. He believed manufacturing plant-made works to exist "quack," and that handwork and craftsmanship merged dignity with labour.^[19] His followers favoured craft product over industrial manufacture and were concerned about the loss of traditional skills, but they were more troubled past the effects of the factory system than by machinery itself.^[20] William Morris's idea of "handicraft" was essentially work without any division of labour rather than piece of work without whatsoever sort of mechanism.^[21]

William Morris [edit]

William Morris, a textile designer who was a fundamental influence on the Arts and crafts motility

William Morris (1834–1896) was the towering figure in late 19th-century design and the primary influence on the Arts and Crafts movement. The artful and social vision of the motion grew out of ideas that he developed in the 1850s with the Birmingham Fix – a group of students at the Academy of Oxford including Edward Burne-Jones, who combined a beloved of Romantic literature with a commitment to social reform.^[22] John William Mackail notes that "Carlyle's Past and Present stood alongside of [Ruskin'south] Mod Painters as inspired and absolute truth."^[23] The medievalism of Mallory'southward Morte d'Arthur set the standard for their early style.^[24] In Burne-Jones' words, they intended to "wage Holy warfare against the age".^[25]

William Morris'south Red Business firm in Bexleyheath, designed by Philip Webb and completed in 1860; 1 of the most significant buildings of the Arts and Crafts move^[26]

Morris began experimenting with various crafts and designing article of furniture and interiors.^[27] He was personally involved in manufacture as well every bit design,^[27] which was the hallmark of the Arts and Crafts movement. Ruskin had argued that the separation of the intellectual human action of pattern from the manual act of physical creation was both socially and aesthetically damaging. Morris further adult this idea, insisting that no work should be carried out in his workshops earlier he had personally mastered the appropriate techniques and materials, arguing that "without dignified, artistic human occupation people became disconnected from life".^[27]

The weaving shed in Morris & Co'due south factory at Merton, which opened in the 1880s

In 1861, Morris began making piece of furniture and decorative objects commercially, modelling his designs on medieval styles and using assuming forms and strong colours. His patterns were based on flora and animal, and his products were inspired by the vernacular or domestic traditions of the British countryside. Some were deliberately left unfinished in social club to display the beauty of the materials and the work of the craftsman, thus creating a rustic appearance. Morris strove to unite all the arts within the ornamentation of the home, emphasizing nature and simplicity of form.^[28]

Social and design principles [edit]

Unlike their counterparts in the United States, most Arts and Crafts practitioners in Britain had strong, slightly breathless, negative feelings about machinery. They thought of 'the craftsman' as free, creative, and working with his hands, 'the machine' as soulless, repetitive, and inhuman. These contrasting images derive in function from John Ruskin's (1819–1900) The Stones of Venice, an architectural history of Venice that contains a powerful denunciation of modern industrialism to which Arts and crafts designers returned again and again. Distrust for the auto lay behind the many little workshops that turned their backs on the industrial world around 1900, using preindustrial techniques to create what they called 'crafts.'

— Alan Crawford, "W. A. S. Benson, Machinery, and the Craft Motion in Britain"^[29]

Critique of industry [edit]

William Morris shared Ruskin's critique of industrial society and at ane fourth dimension or another attacked the modern factory, the use of mechanism, the division of labour, capitalism and the loss of traditional craft methods. Merely his attitude to machinery was inconsistent. He said at one point that production by machinery was "altogether an evil",^[10] but at others times, he was willing to commission work from manufacturers who were able to run into his standards with the aid of machines.^[30] Morris said that in a "true society", where neither luxuries nor cheap trash were made, mechanism could be improved and used to reduce the hours of labour.^[31] Fiona MacCarthy says that "unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed."^[32]

Morris insisted that the artist should be a craftsman-designer working by hand^[ten] and advocated a society of free craftspeople, such equally he believed had existed during the Centre Ages. "Because craftsmen took pleasance in their work", he wrote, "the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the fine art of the common people. ... The treasures in our museums at present are only the common utensils used in households of that age, when hundreds of medieval churches – each 1 a masterpiece – were congenital by unsophisticated peasants."^[33] Medieval art was the model for much of Arts and crafts design, and medieval life, literature and building was idealised by the movement.

Morris's followers also had differing views about machinery and the factory arrangement. For example, C. R. Ashbee, a central figure in the Craft movement, said in 1888, that, "We do non reject the auto, we welcome it. But nosotros would want to run into information technology mastered."^{[10] [34]} After unsuccessfully pitting his Gild and School of Handicraft lodge confronting modern methods of industry, he best-selling that "Modernistic civilisation rests on mechanism",^[10] but he connected to criticise the deleterious effects of what he chosen "mechanism", saying that "the production of certain mechanical commodities is as bad for the national health as is the production of slave-grown pikestaff or child-sweated wares."^[35] William Arthur Smith Benson, on the other hand, had no qualms about adapting the Arts and Crafts manner to metalwork produced under industrial conditions. (Run into quotation box.)

Morris and his followers believed the division of labour on which modern manufacture depended was undesirable, but the extent to which every design should exist carried out past the designer was a matter for debate and disagreement. Not all Craft artists carried out every stage in the making of goods themselves, and information technology was only in the twentieth century that that became essential to the definition of craftsmanship. Although Morris was famous for getting hands-on feel himself of many crafts (including weaving, dying, printing, calligraphy and embroidery), he did not regard the separation of designer and executant in his manufacturing plant as problematic. Walter Crane, a close political associate of Morris's, took an unsympathetic view of the division of labour on both moral and artistic grounds, and strongly advocated that designing and making should come from the same hand. Lewis Foreman Day, a friend and contemporary of Crane'south, as unstinting as Crane in his admiration of Morris, disagreed strongly with Crane. He thought that the separation of design and execution was non but inevitable in the mod globe, but also that only that sort of specialisation allowed the best in design and the all-time in making.^[36] Few of the founders of the Craft Exhibition Society insisted that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that "The founders of the Guild ... never executed their ain designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms."^[37] The idea that the designer should be the maker and the maker the designer derived "not from Morris or early Arts and Crafts teaching, merely rather from the second-generation elaboration doctrine worked out in the commencement decade of [the twentieth] century past men such equally Due west. R. Lethaby".^[37]

[edit]

Many of the Arts and crafts motility designers were socialists, including Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, C.R. Ashbee, Philip Webb, Charles Faulkner, and A. H. Mackmurdo.^[38] In the early 1880s, Morris was spending more of his time on promoting socialism than on designing and making.^[39] Ashbee established a community of craftsmen chosen the Guild of Handicraft in due east London, later moving to Chipping Campden.^[7] Those adherents who were not socialists, such every bit Alfred Hoare Powell,^[20] advocated a more than humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day was another successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer who was not a socialist, despite his long friendship with Crane.

Association with other reform movements [edit]

In U.k., the movement was associated with dress reform,^[40] ruralism, the garden city movement^[vi] and the folk-vocal revival. All were linked, in some caste, past the ideal of "the Simple Life".^[41] In continental Europe the movement was associated with the preservation of national traditions in edifice, the applied arts, domestic design and costume.^[42]

Evolution [edit]

Morris'southward designs quickly became popular, attracting interest when his company'southward piece of work was exhibited at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. Much of Morris & Co'south early on work was for churches and Morris won important interior pattern commissions at St James'due south Palace and the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum). Later his piece of work became popular with the middle and upper classes, despite his wish to create a autonomous art, and by the end of the 19th century, Arts and Crafts design in houses and domestic interiors was the dominant style in Britain, copied in products made by conventional industrial methods.

The spread of Craft ideas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the institution of many associations and craft communities, although Morris had little to do with them because of his preoccupation with socialism at the time. A hundred and thirty Arts and Crafts organisations were formed in Britain, near between 1895 and 1905.^[43]

In 1881, Eglantyne Louisa Jebb, Mary Fraser Tytler and others initiated the Dwelling Arts and Industries Clan to encourage the working classes, particularly those in rural areas, to take up handicrafts under supervision, non for profit, only in guild to provide them with useful occupations and to better their taste. By 1889 information technology had 450 classes, 1,000 teachers and 5,000 students.^[44]

In 1882, architect A.H.Mackmurdo formed the Century Guild, a partnership of designers including Selwyn Paradigm, Herbert Horne, Cloudless Heaton and Benjamin Creswick.^{[45] [46]}

In 1884, the Art Workers Guild was initiated by v immature architects, William Lethaby, Edward Prior, Ernest Newton, Mervyn Macartney and Gerald C. Horsley, with the goal of bringing together fine and practical arts and raising the status of the latter. It was directed originally by George Blackall Simonds. By 1890 the Guild had 150 members, representing the increasing number of practitioners of the Craft mode.^[47] Information technology even so exists.

The London department shop Liberty & Co., founded in 1875, was a prominent retailer of appurtenances in the style and of the "artistic wearing apparel" favoured by followers of the Arts and Crafts move.

In 1887 the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, which gave its name to the movement, was formed with Walter Crane as president, holding its first exhibition in the New Gallery, London, in November 1888.^[48] It was the first testify of gimmicky decorative arts in London since the Grosvenor Gallery'southward Winter Exhibition of 1881.^[49] Morris & Co. was well represented in the exhibition with furniture, fabrics, carpets and embroideries. Edward Burne-Jones observed, "hither for the first time 1 can measure a bit the change that has happened in the last twenty years".^[fifty] The society still exists as the Society of Designer Craftsmen.^[51]

In 1888, C.R.Ashbee, a major late practitioner of the way in England, founded the Guild and School of Handicraft in the East End of London. The club was a craft branch modelled on the medieval guilds and intended to give working men satisfaction in their craftsmanship. Skilled craftsmen, working on the principles of Ruskin and Morris, were to produce mitt-crafted goods and manage a school for apprentices. The idea was greeted with enthusiasm past nigh everyone except Morris, who was by now involved with promoting socialism and idea Ashbee'due south scheme trivial. From 1888 to 1902 the guild prospered, employing about 50 men. In 1902 Ashbee relocated the gild out of London to begin an experimental community in Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds. The guild's work is characterised by manifestly surfaces of hammered silver, flowing wirework and colored stones in simple settings. Ashbee designed jewellery and silver tableware. The guild flourished at Chipping Camden merely did not prosper and was liquidated in 1908. Some craftsmen stayed, contributing to the tradition of modern adroitness in the area.^{[16] [52] [53]}

C.F.A. Voysey (1857–1941) was an Arts and Crafts architect who also designed fabrics, tiles, ceramics, furniture and metalwork. His mode combined simplicity with sophistication. His wallpapers and textiles, featuring stylised bird and establish forms in assuming outlines with flat colors, were used widely.^[xvi]

Morris's thought influenced the distributism of G. One thousand. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc.^[54]

Coleton Fishacre was designed in 1925 every bit a holiday domicile in Kingswear, Devon, England, in the Arts and Crafts tradition.

By the stop of the nineteenth century, Arts and crafts ideals had influenced architecture, painting, sculpture, graphics, analogy, volume making and photography, domestic pattern and the decorative arts, including furniture and woodwork, stained glass,^[55] leatherwork, lacemaking, embroidery, carpeting making and weaving, jewelry and metalwork, enameling and ceramics.^[56] Past 1910, there was a fashion for "Craft" and all things hand-made. In that location was a proliferation of amateur handicrafts of variable quality^[57] and of incompetent imitators who caused the public to regard Arts and Crafts as "something less, instead of more than, competent and fit for purpose than an ordinary mass produced commodity."^[58]

The Craft Exhibition Society held eleven exhibitions between 1888 and 1916. By the outbreak of war in 1914 it was in refuse and faced a crisis. Its 1912 exhibition had been a financial failure.^[59] While designers in continental Europe were making innovations in pattern and alliances with industry through initiatives such equally the Deutsche Werkbund and new initiatives were being taken in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland past the Omega Workshops and the Blueprint in Industries Clan, the Arts and crafts Exhibition Order, now nether the control of an onetime guard, was withdrawing from commerce and collaboration with manufacturers into purist handwork and what Tania Harrod describes as "decommoditisation"^[59] Its rejection of a commercial office has been seen as a turning point in its fortunes.^[59] Nikolaus Pevsner in his book Pioneers of Modernistic Design presents the Craft movement as pattern radicals who influenced the modern movement, just failed to change and were eventually superseded by information technology.^[x]

Later influences [edit]

The British creative person potter Bernard Leach brought to England many ideas he had developed in Nippon with the social critic Yanagi Soetsu about the moral and social value of unproblematic crafts; both were enthusiastic readers of Ruskin. Leach was an active propagandist for these ideas, which struck a chord with practitioners of the crafts in the inter-war years, and he expounded them in A Potter's Book, published in 1940, which denounced industrial social club in terms every bit vehement as those of Ruskin and Morris. Thus the Arts and Crafts philosophy was perpetuated amid British arts and crafts workers in the 1950s and 1960s, long after the demise of the Craft movement and at the high tide of Modernism. British Utility furniture of the 1940s besides derived from Arts and crafts principles.^[60] One of its main promoters, Gordon Russell, chairman of the Utility Furniture Blueprint Console, was imbued with Arts and Crafts ideas. He manufactured furniture in the Cotswold Hills, a region of Arts and Crafts furniture-making since Ashbee, and he was a member of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. William Morris's biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, detected the Arts and Crafts philosophy even behind the Festival of United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland (1951), the work of the designer Terence Conran (b. 1931)^[6] and the founding of the British Crafts Council in the 1970s.^[61]

By region [edit]

The British Isles [edit]

Stained glass window, The Colina Business firm, Helensburgh, Argyll and Bute

Scotland [edit]

The ancestry of the Arts and Crafts motion in Scotland were in the stained glass revival of the 1850s, pioneered by James Ballantine (1808–1877). His major works included the great west window of Dunfermline Abbey and the scheme for St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. In Glasgow it was pioneered by Daniel Cottier (1838–1891), who had probably studied with Ballantine, and was directly influenced by William Morris, Ford Madox Brownish and John Ruskin. His key works included the Baptism of Christ in Paisley Abbey, (c. 1880). His followers included Stephen Adam and his son of the same name.^[62] The Glasgow-born designer and theorist Christopher Dresser (1834–1904) was one of the starting time, and most of import, contained designers, a pivotal figure in the Aesthetic Movement and a major contributor to the centrolineal Anglo-Japanese movement.^[63] The motility had an "extraordinary flowering" in Scotland where it was represented by the development of the 'Glasgow Fashion' which was based on the talent of the Glasgow School of Fine art. Celtic revival took concur here, and motifs such every bit the Glasgow rose became popularised. Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928) and the Glasgow School of Art were to influence others worldwide.^{[i] [56]}

Wales [edit]

The state of affairs in Wales was dissimilar than elsewhere in the UK. Insofar as craftsmanship was concerned, Arts and Crafts was a revivalist entrada. But in Wales, at to the lowest degree until World War I, a genuine craft tradition still existed. Local materials, stone or clay, continued to be used every bit a matter of form.^[64]

Scotland go known in the Arts and crafts movement for its stained glass; Wales would become known for its pottery. Past the mid 19th century, the heavy, salt glazes used for generations by local craftsmen had gone out of manner, not least as mass-produced ceramics undercut prices. But the Arts and Crafts Movement brought new appreciation to their work. Horace W Elliot, an English gallerist, visited the Ewenny Pottery (which dated back to the 17th century) in 1885, to both find local pieces and encourage a style compatible with the movement.^[65] The pieces he brought back to London for the next twenty years revivified interest in Welsh pottery piece of work.

A key promoter of the Craft movement in Wales was Owen Morgan Edwards. Edwards was a reforming politico dedicated to renewing Welsh pride by exposing its people to their ain language and history. For Edwards, "There is nix that Wales requires more than an didactics in the arts and crafts."^[66] – though Edwards was more inclined to resurrecting Welsh Nationalism than admiring glazes or rustic integrity.^[67]

In compages, Clough Williams-Ellis sought to renew involvement in aboriginal edifice, reviving "rammed earth" or pisé[i] construction in Britain.

Ireland [edit]

The move spread to Ireland, representing an important fourth dimension for the nation's cultural evolution, a visual counterpart to the literary revival of the same time^[68] and was a publication of Irish nationalism. The Arts and Crafts use of stained glass was pop in Ireland, with Harry Clarke the best-known artist and besides with Evie Hone. The architecture of the fashion is represented by the Honan Chapel (1916) in Cork city in the grounds of University College Cork.^[69] Other architects practicing in Ireland included Sir Edwin Lutyens (Heywood House in Co. Laois, Lambay Island and the Irish National War Memorial Gardens in Dublin) and Frederick 'Pa' Hicks (Malahide Castle estate buildings and round tower). Irish Celtic motifs were popular with the motion in silvercraft, carpeting design, book illustrations and hand-carved furniture.

Continental Europe [edit]

In continental Europe, the revival and preservation of national styles was an important motive of Craft designers; for example, in Germany, afterwards unification in 1871 under the encouragement of the Bund für Heimatschutz (1897)^[lxx] and the Vereinigte Werkstätten für Kunst im Handwerk founded in 1898 by Karl Schmidt; and in Hungary Károly Kós revived the vernacular style of Transylvanian building. In cardinal Europe, where several diverse nationalities lived under powerful empires (Germany, Republic of austria-Hungary and Russia), the discovery of the vernacular was associated with the assertion of national pride and the striving for independence, and, whereas for Craft practitioners in Great britain the ideal fashion was to be found in the medieval, in central Europe information technology was sought in remote peasant villages.^[71]

Widely exhibited in Europe, the Arts and Crafts manner'south simplicity inspired designers like Henry van de Velde and styles such equally Art Nouveau, the Dutch De Stijl grouping, Vienna Secession, and somewhen the Bauhaus style. Pevsner regarded the style as a prelude to Modernism, which used uncomplicated forms without ornament.^[10]

The earliest Arts and Crafts activeness in continental Europe was in Belgium in nearly 1890, where the English language fashion inspired artists and architects including Henry Van de Velde, Gabriel Van Dievoet, Gustave Serrurier-Bovy and a group known as La Libre Esthétique (Free Aesthetic).

Craft products were admired in Austria and Germany in the early 20th century, and under their inspiration design moved chop-chop forward while information technology stagnated in U.k..^[72] The Wiener Werkstätte, founded in 1903 by Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser, was influenced by the Arts and crafts principles of the "unity of the arts" and the hand-made. The Deutscher Werkbund (German Clan of Craftsmen) was formed in 1907 every bit an association of artists, architects, designers, and industrialists to improve the global competitiveness of German businesses and became an of import element in the development of modern compages and industrial design through its advocacy of standardized production. However, its leading members, van de Velde and Hermann Muthesius, had conflicting opinions about standardization. Muthesius believed that it was essential were Frg to become a leading nation in trade and culture. Van de Velde, representing a more traditional Arts and crafts attitude, believed that artists would forever "protestation confronting the imposition of orders or standardization," and that "The artist ... will never, of his own accordance, submit to a discipline which imposes on him a canon or a type." ^[73]

In Finland, an idealistic artists' colony in Helsinki was designed by Herman Gesellius, Armas Lindgren and Eliel Saarinen,^[one] who worked in the National Romantic way, akin to the British Gothic Revival.

In Hungary, under the influence of Ruskin and Morris, a grouping of artists and architects, including Károly Kós, Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch and Ede Toroczkai Wigand, discovered the folk art and vernacular compages of Transylvania. Many of Kós's buildings, including those in the Budapest zoo and the Wekerle estate in the same city, bear witness this influence.^[74]

In Russia, Viktor Hartmann, Viktor Vasnetsov, Yelena Polenova and other artists associated with Abramtsevo Colony sought to revive the quality of medieval Russian decorative arts quite independently from the movement in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.

In Iceland, Sölvi Helgason'south work shows Arts and crafts influence.

Northward America [edit]

Warren Wilson Beach House (The Venice Beach Business firm), Venice, California

Hazard House, Pasadena, California

Craft Tudor Habitation in the Buena Park Historic Commune, Uptown, Chicago

Example of Arts and Crafts fashion influence on Federation architecture Observe the faceted bay window and the stone base of operations.

Arts and Crafts home in the Birckhead Place neighborhood of Toledo, Ohio

In the United States, the Arts and Crafts mode initiated a variety of attempts to reinterpret European Craft ideals for Americans. These included the "Craftsman"-style architecture, piece of furniture, and other decorative arts such as designs promoted by Gustav Stickley in his mag, The Craftsman and designs produced on the Roycroft campus equally publicized in Elbert Hubbard's The Fra. Both men used their magazines every bit a vehicle to promote the goods produced with the Craftsman workshop in Eastwood, NY and Elbert Hubbard's Roycroft campus in East Aurora, NY. A host of imitators of Stickley'due south furniture (the designs of which are frequently mislabelled the "Mission Style") included three companies established past his brothers.

The terms American Craftsman or Craftsman style are often used to denote the style of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts that prevailed between the dominant eras of Art Nouveau and Art Deco in the Usa, or approximately the period from 1910 to 1925. The movement was particularly notable for the professional person opportunities information technology opened up for women as artisans, designers and entrepreneurs who founded and ran, or were employed by, such successful enterprises as the Kalo Shops, Pewabic Pottery, Rookwood Pottery, and Tiffany Studios. In Canada, the term Arts and Crafts predominates, only Craftsman is as well recognized.^[75]

While the Europeans tried to recreate the virtuous crafts being replaced past industrialisation, Americans tried to establish a new type of virtue to replace heroic craft production: well-busy middle-class homes. They claimed that the elementary but refined aesthetics of Arts and Crafts decorative arts would ennoble the new experience of industrial consumerism, making individuals more rational and club more harmonious. The American Arts and crafts motility was the artful counterpart of its contemporary political philosophy, progressivism. Characteristically, when the Arts and Crafts Society began in Oct 1897 in Chicago, it was at Hull House, ane of the first American settlement houses for social reform.^[76]

Arts and Crafts ideals disseminated in America through journal and newspaper writing were supplemented by societies that sponsored lectures.^[76] The offset was organized in Boston in the late 1890s, when a grouping of influential architects, designers, and educators determined to bring to America the pattern reforms begun in United kingdom by William Morris; they met to organize an exhibition of gimmicky craft objects. The first meeting was held on Jan 4, 1897, at the Museum of Fine Arts (MFA) in Boston to organize an exhibition of gimmicky crafts. When craftsmen, consumers, and manufacturers realised the aesthetic and technical potential of the applied arts, the procedure of blueprint reform in Boston started. Nowadays at this meeting were Full general Charles Loring, Chairman of the Trustees of the MFA; William Sturgis Bigelow and Denman Ross, collectors, writers and MFA trustees; Ross Turner, painter; Sylvester Baxter, art critic for the Boston Transcript; Howard Baker, A.W. Longfellow Jr.; and Ralph Clipson Sturgis, builder.

The first American Arts and crafts Exhibition began on April 5, 1897, at Copley Hall, Boston featuring more than 1000 objects fabricated by 160 craftsmen, half of whom were women.^[77] Some of the advocates of the showroom were Langford Warren, founder of Harvard's School of Compages; Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt; Arthur Astor Carey and Edwin Mead, social reformers; and Volition H. Bradley, graphic designer. The success of this exhibition resulted in the incorporation of The Society of Arts and Crafts (SAC), on June 28, 1897, with a mandate to "develop and encourage higher standards in the handicrafts." The 21 founders claimed to be interested in more than sales, and emphasized encouragement of artists to produce work with the all-time quality of workmanship and design. This mandate was presently expanded into a credo, perchance written by the SAC's first president, Charles Eliot Norton, which read:

This Society was incorporated for the purpose of promoting artistic work in all branches of handicraft. It hopes to bring Designers and Workmen into mutually helpful relations, and to encourage workmen to execute designs of their own. It endeavors to stimulate in workmen an appreciation of the dignity and value of adept blueprint; to counteract the popular impatience of Constabulary and Form, and the desire for over-ornamentation and specious originality. It volition insist upon the necessity of sobriety and restraint, or ordered arrangement, of due regard for the relation between the form of an object and its use, and of harmony and fitness in the ornamentation put upon it.^[78]

Built in 1913–14 by the Boston architect J. Williams Beal in the Ossipee Mountains of New Hampshire, Tom and Olive Plant's mountaintop estate, Castle in the Clouds also known equally Lucknow, is an excellent example of the American Craftsman style in New England.^[79]

Also influential were the Roycroft community initiated by Elbert Hubbard in Buffalo and East Aurora, New York, Joseph Marbella, utopian communities like Byrdcliffe Colony in Woodstock, New York, and Rose Valley, Pennsylvania, developments such as Mountain Lakes, New Jersey, featuring clusters of bungalow and chateau homes built by Herbert J. Hapgood, and the gimmicky studio craft style. Studio pottery – exemplified past the Grueby Faience Visitor, Newcomb Pottery in New Orleans, Marblehead Pottery, Teco pottery, Overbeck and Rookwood pottery and Mary Hunt Perry Stratton's Pewabic Pottery in Detroit, the Van Briggle Pottery company in Colorado Springs, Colorado, equally well equally the art tiles made past Ernest A. Batchelder in Pasadena, California, and idiosyncratic furniture of Charles Rohlfs all demonstrate the influence of Arts and crafts.

Architecture and Art [edit]

The "Prairie School" of Frank Lloyd Wright, George Washington Maher and other architects in Chicago, the Country Day Schoolhouse movement, the bungalow and ultimate bungalow way of houses popularized by Greene and Greene, Julia Morgan, and Bernard Maybeck are some examples of the American Arts and Crafts and American Craftsman style of architecture. Restored and landmark-protected examples are nonetheless present in America, particularly in California in Berkeley and Pasadena, and the sections of other towns originally developed during the era and not experiencing post-state of war urban renewal. Mission Revival, Prairie School, and the 'California bungalow' styles of residential edifice remain popular in the U.s. today.

As theoreticians, educators, and prolific artists in mediums from printmaking to pottery and pastel, ii of the well-nigh influential figures were Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) on the East Coast and Pedro Joseph de Lemos (1882–1954) in California. Dow, who taught at Columbia University and founded the Ipswich Summer Schoolhouse of Fine art, published in 1899 his landmark Composition, which distilled into a distinctly American arroyo the essence of Japanese composition, combining into a decorative harmonious amalgam 3 elements: simplicity of line, "notan" (the rest of light and dark areas), and symmetry of colour.^[eighty] His purpose was to create objects that were finely crafted and beautifully rendered. His student de Lemos, who became head of the San Francisco Art Institute, Manager of the Stanford University Museum and Art Gallery, and Editor-in-Chief of the Schoolhouse Arts Magazine, expanded and substantially revised Dow's ideas in over 150 monographs and articles for fine art schools in the United states of america and United kingdom.^[81] Among his many unorthodox teachings was his belief that manufactured products could express "the sublime beauty" and that great insight was to be plant in the abstruse "design forms" of pre-Columbian civilizations.

Museums [edit]

The Museum of the American Arts and crafts Movement in Petrograd, Florida, opened its doors in 2019.^{[82] [83]}

Asia [edit]

In Japan, Yanagi Sōetsu, creator of the Mingei motion which promoted folk art from the 1920s onwards, was influenced by the writings of Morris and Ruskin.^[33] Similar the Arts and crafts move in Europe, Mingei sought to preserve traditional crafts in the face of modernising industry.

Architecture [edit]

The movement ... represents in some sense a revolt against the hard mechanical conventional life and its insensibility to dazzler (quite another thing to ornament). It is a protest against that so-called industrial progress which produces shoddy wares, the cheapness of which is paid for past the lives of their producers and the deposition of their users. It is a protest against the turning of men into machines, against bogus distinctions in art, and against making the immediate market value, or possibility of profit, the chief test of artistic merit. It also advances the merits of all and each to the common possession of beauty in things common and familiar, and would awaken the sense of this beauty, deadened and depressed equally it now as well often is, either on the 1 manus by luxurious superfluities, or on the other by the absence of the commonest necessities and the gnawing anxiety for the means of livelihood; non to speak of the everyday uglinesses to which nosotros have accepted our eyes, confused by the flood of false taste, or darkened past the hurried life of modern towns in which huge aggregations of humanity be, equally removed from both fine art and nature and their kindly and refining influences.

-- Walter Crane, "Of The Revival of Design and Handicraft", in Arts and Crafts Essays, by Members of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Club, 1893

Many of the leaders of the Arts and crafts movement were trained as architects (e.one thousand. William Morris, A. H. Mackmurdo, C. R. Ashbee, W. R. Lethaby) and it was on building that the motion had its most visible and lasting influence.

Red House, in Bexleyheath, London, designed for Morris in 1859 by architect Philip Webb, exemplifies the early Arts and Crafts style, with its well-proportioned solid forms, wide porches, steep roof, pointed window arches, brick fireplaces and wooden fittings. Webb rejected classical and other revivals of historical styles based on 1000 buildings, and based his design on British vernacular architecture, expressing the texture of ordinary materials, such as stone and tiles, with an asymmetrical and picturesque building composition.^[16]

The London suburb of Bedford Park, built mainly in the 1880s and 1890s, has nearly 360 Arts and Crafts style houses and was once famous for its Aesthetic residents. Several Almshouses were built in the Craft mode, for example, Whiteley Village, Surrey, built betwixt 1914 and 1917, with over 280 buildings, and the Dyers Almshouses, Sussex, built between 1939 and 1971. Letchworth Garden City, the start garden city, was inspired by Arts and Crafts ideals.^[six] The first houses were designed past Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin in the colloquial style popularized past the movement and the town became associated with loftier-mindedness and simple living. The sandal-making workshop set up by Edward Carpenter moved from Yorkshire to Letchworth Garden City and George Orwell'south jibe nigh "every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-maniac, Quaker, 'Nature Cure' quack, pacifist, and feminist in England" going to a socialist briefing in Letchworth has become famous.^[84]

Architectural examples [edit]

• Red Firm – Bexleyheath, Kent – 1859
• David Parr House – Cambridge, England – 1886–1926
• Wightwick Manor – Wolverhampton, England – 1887–93
• Inglewood – Leicester, England – 1892
• Standen – East Grinstead, England – 1894
• Swedenborgian Church building – San Francisco, California – 1895
• Mary Ward House – Bloomsbury, London – 1896–98
• Blackwell – Lake District, England – 1898
• Derwent House – Chislehurst, Kent – 1899
• Stoneywell – Ulverscroft, Leicestershire – 1899
• The Arts & Crafts Church (Long Street Methodist Church building and School) – Manchester, England – 1900
• Spade House – Sandgate, Kent – 1900
• Caledonian Manor – Islington, London – 1900–1907
• Horniman Museum – Forest Hill, London – 1901
• All Saints' Church, Brockhampton – 1901–02
• Shaw's Corner – Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire – 1902
• Pierre P. Ferry House – Seattle, Washington – 1903–1906
• Winterbourne House – Birmingham, England – 1904
• The Black Friar – Blackfriars, London – 1905
• Marston Business firm – San Diego, California – 1905
• Edgar Wood Centre – Manchester, England – 1905
• Debenham House – Holland Park, London – 1905–07
• Robert R. Blacker Business firm – Pasadena, California – 1907
• Stotfold, Bickley, Kent – 1907
• Hazard Firm – Pasadena, California – 1908
• Oregon Public Library – Oregon, Illinois – 1909
• Thorsen Business firm – Berkeley, California – 1909
• Rodmarton Manor – Rodmarton, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire – 1909–29
• Whare Ra – Havelock North, New Zealand – 1912
• Sutton Garden Suburb – Benhilton, Sutton, London – 1912–14
• Castle in the Clouds – Ossipee Mountains at Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire – 1913-four
• Honan Chapel – University College Cork, Republic of ireland – c.1916
• St Francis Xavier's Cathedral – Geraldton Western Commonwealth of australia 1916–1938
• Bedales School Memorial Library – most Petersfield, Hampshire – 1919–21

Garden design [edit]

Gertrude Jekyll applied Arts and Crafts principles to garden design. She worked with the English architect, Sir Edwin Lutyens, for whose projects she created numerous landscapes, and who designed her home Munstead Wood, near Godalming in Surrey.^[85] Jekyll created the gardens for Bishopsbarns,^[86] the home of York architect Walter Brierley, an exponent of the Arts and crafts movement and known every bit the "Lutyens of the North".^[87] The garden for Brierley'south final project, Goddards in York, was the work of George Dillistone, a gardener who worked with Lutyens and Jekyll at Castle Drogo.^[88] At Goddards the garden incorporated a number of features that reflected the arts and crafts style of the house, such as the use of hedges and herbaceous borders to divide the garden into a series of outdoor rooms.^[89] Some other notable Arts and crafts garden is Hidcote Manor Garden designed by Lawrence Johnston which is also laid out in a series of outdoor rooms and where, like Goddards, the landscaping becomes less formal further away from the business firm.^[xc] Other examples of Arts and Crafts gardens include Hestercombe Gardens, Lytes Cary Estate and the gardens of some of the architectural examples of arts and crafts buildings (listed above).

Fine art education [edit]

Morris'due south ideas were adopted by the New Pedagogy Movement in the tardily 1880s, which incorporated handicraft instruction in schools at Abbotsholme (1889) and Bedales (1892), and his influence has been noted in the social experiments of Dartington Hall during the mid-20th century.^[61]

Arts and Crafts practitioners in Britain were disquisitional of the government system of fine art education based on design in the abstract with little teaching of practical arts and crafts. This lack of craft grooming also caused concern in industrial and official circles, and in 1884 a Royal Commission (accepting the advice of William Morris) recommended that art education should pay more attention to the suitability of design to the material in which information technology was to be executed.^[91] The first schoolhouse to brand this alter was the Birmingham School of Arts and Crafts, which "led the style in introducing executed pattern to the pedagogy of art and design nationally (working in the material for which the design was intended rather than designing on newspaper). In his external examiner's written report of 1889, Walter Crane praised Birmingham School of Art in that it 'considered design in relationship to materials and usage.'"^[92] Under the direction of Edward Taylor, its headmaster from 1877 to 1903, and with the help of Henry Payne and Joseph Southall, the Birmingham Schoolhouse became a leading Arts-and-Crafts centre.^[93]

George Frampton. Season ticket to The Arts and Craft Exhibition Society 1890.

Other local authorization schools besides began to introduce more practical teaching of crafts, and past the 1890s Arts and Crafts ethics were being disseminated by members of the Art Workers Guild into art schools throughout the land. Members of the Guild held influential positions: Walter Crane was managing director of the Manchester School of Art and later the Royal College of Art; F.K. Simpson, Robert Anning Bell and C.J.Allen were respectively professor of architecture, instructor in painting and design, and instructor in sculpture at Liverpool Schoolhouse of Art; Robert Catterson-Smith, the headmaster of the Birmingham Fine art Schoolhouse from 1902 to 1920, was likewise an AWG member; W. R. Lethaby and George Frampton were inspectors and advisors to the London County Quango'southward (LCC) education board and in 1896, largely every bit a effect of their work, the LCC gear up upward the Cardinal School of Arts and Crafts and made them joint principals.^[94] Until the formation of the Bauhaus in Germany, the Central School was regarded as the most progressive art school in Europe.^[95] Shortly after its foundation, the Camberwell School of Arts and crafts was set up on Arts and Crafts lines by the local civic council.

As head of the Regal Higher of Art in 1898, Crane tried to reform it along more practical lines, just resigned after a twelvemonth, defeated by the bureaucracy of the Lath of Education, who then appointed Augustus Spencer to implement his plan. Spencer brought in Lethaby to head its school of pattern and several members of the Art Workers' Guild as teachers.^[94] X years after reform, a commission of research reviewed the RCA and plant that it was withal not adequately training students for industry.^[96] In the debate that followed the publication of the committee's report, C.R.Ashbee published a highly critical essay, Should Nosotros Terminate Instruction Art, in which he chosen for the system of fine art education to exist completely dismantled and for the crafts to exist learned in state-subsidised workshops instead.^[97] Lewis Foreman Day, an important figure in the Arts and Crafts motion, took a different view in his dissenting written report to the committee of enquiry, arguing for greater accent on principles of design against the growing orthodoxy of teaching design past straight working in materials. Nevertheless, the Craft ethos thoroughly pervaded British art schools and persisted, in the view of the historian of art education, Stuart MacDonald, until after the 2nd World War.^[94]

Leading practitioners [edit]

• Charles Robert Ashbee
• William Swinden Barber
• Barnsley brothers
• Detmar Blow
• Herbert Tudor Buckland
• Rowland Wilfred William Carter
• T. J. Cobden-Sanderson
• Walter Crane
• Nelson Dawson
• Lewis Foreman 24-hour interval
• Christopher Dresser
• Dirk van Erp
• Thomas Phillips Figgis
• Eric Gill
• Ernest Gimson
• Greene & Greene
• Elbert Hubbard
• Norman Jewson
• Ralph Johonnot
• Florence Koehler
• Frederick Leach
• William Lethaby
• Edwin Lutyens
• Charles Rennie Mackintosh
• A.H.Mackmurdo
• Samuel Maclure
• George Washington Maher
• Bernard Maybeck
• Henry Chapman Mercer
• Julia Morgan
• William De Morgan
• William Morris
• Karl Parsons
• Alfred Hoare Powell
• Edward Schroeder Prior
• Hugh C. Robertson
• William Robinson
• Baillie Scott
• Norman Shaw
• Ellen Gates Starr
• Gustav Stickley
• Phoebe Anna Traquair
• C.F.A. Voysey
• Philip Webb
• Margaret Ely Webb
• Christopher Whall
• Edgar Woods
• Charles Rohlfs

Decorative arts gallery [edit]

• 

Meet too [edit]

• Modern Way (British Art Nouveau fashion)
• Philip Clissett
• The English House
• Charles Prendergast
• William Morris wallpaper designs
• William Morris textile designs

References [edit]

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Bibliography and farther reading [edit]

• Ayers, Dianne (2002). American Arts and Crafts Textiles. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN0-8109-0434-nine.
• Blakesley, Rosalind P. The craft movement (Phaidon, 2006).
• Boris, Eileen (1986). Art and Labor . Philadelphia: Temple University Printing. ISBN0-87722-384-X.
• Carruthers, Annette. The Arts and Crafts Movement in Scotland: A History (2013) online review
• Cathers, David Thou. (1981). Piece of furniture of the American Arts and Crafts Motion. The New American Library, Inc. ISBN0-453-00397-4.
• Cathers, David Grand. (2014). And so Diverse Are The Forms Information technology Assumes: American Arts & Crafts Piece of furniture from the Two Red Roses Foundation. Marquand Books. ISBN978-0-692-21348-3.
• Cathers, David M. (twenty February 2017). These Humbler Metals: Craft Metalwork from the Two Ruddy Roses Foundation Collection. Marquand Books. ISBN978-0-615-98869-6.
• Cormack, Peter. Arts & crafts stained drinking glass (Yale UP, 2015).
• Cumming, Elizabeth; Kaplan, Wendy (1991). Arts & Crafts Movement. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN0-500-20248-vi.
• Cumming, Elizabeth (2006). Hand, Centre and Soul: The Arts and Crafts Movement in Scotland. Birlinn. ISBN978-one-84158-419-5.
• Danahay, Martin. "Craft equally a Transatlantic Movement: CR Ashbee in the United States, 1896–1915." Journal of Victorian Culture 20.1 (2015): 65–86.
• Greensted, Mary. The arts and crafts movement in United kingdom (Shire, 2010).
• Johnson, Bruce (2012). Arts & Crafts Shopmarks. Fletcher, NC: Knock On Wood Publications. ISBN978-i-4507-9024-6.
• Kaplan, Wendy (1987). The Fine art that Is Life: The Arts & Crafts Movement in America 1875-1920. New York: Trivial, Brownish and Company.
• Kreisman, Lawrence, and Glenn Stonemason. The Arts & Arts and crafts Motility in the Pacific Northwest (Timber Press, 2007).
• Krugh, Michele. "Joy in labour: The politicization of craft from the arts and crafts movement to Etsy." Canadian Review of American Studies 44.two (2014): 281–301. online
• Luckman, Susan. "Precarious labour then and at present: The British arts and crafts motion and cultural piece of work revisited." Theorizing Cultural Piece of work (Routledge, 2014) pp. 33–43 online.
• MacCarthy, Fiona (2009). "Morris, William (1834–1896), designer, author, and visionary socialist". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19322. (Subscription or U.k. public library membership required.)
• MacCarthy, Fiona (1994). William Morris. Faber and Faber. ISBN0-571-17495-7.
• Mascia-Lees, Frances E. "American Dazzler: The Eye Form Arts and crafts Revival in the United States." in Critical Craft (Routledge, 2020) pp. 57–77.
• Meister, Maureen. Craft Architecture: History and Heritage in New England (Upwards of New England, 2014).
• Naylor, Gillian (1971). The Arts and crafts Motility: a study of its sources, ideals and influence on design theory . London: Studio Vista. ISBN028979580X.
• Parry, Linda (2005). Textiles of the Craft Movement. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN0-500-28536-5.
• Penick, Monica, Christopher Long, and Harry Ransom Center, eds. The rise of everyday design: The arts and crafts movement in United kingdom and America (Yale UP, 2019).
• Richardson, Margaret. Architects of the arts and crafts movement (1983)
• Tankard, Judith B. Gardens of the Arts and crafts Motility (Timber Press, 2018)
• Teehan, Virginia; Heckett, Elizabeth (2005). The Honan Chapel: A Golden Vision. Cork: Cork University Press. ISBN978-1-8591-8346-5.
• Thomas, Zoë. "Between Art and Commerce: Women, Business concern Ownership, and the Craft Motion." Past & Nowadays 247.one (2020): 151–196. online
• Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts motion (Parkstone International, 2014).
• Wildman, Stephen (1998). Edward Burne-Jones, Victorian artist-dreamer. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. ISBN9780870998584 . Retrieved 26 December 2013.

External links [edit]

• Fiona MacCarthy, "The erstwhile romantics", The Guardian, Saturday five March 2005 01.25 GMT
• Furniture makers of America and Canada during the Arts & Crafts Motion
• The first public museum exclusively dedicated to the American Arts & Crafts movement
• Catalog lists with images of the major American Arts & Crafts furniture makers Archived 2017-06-21 at the Wayback Car

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement

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